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Myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside was reported only in the leaves and branches of the amla tree [21]

Macrophage polarization in rheumatoid arthritis: signaling pathways, metabolic reprogramming, and crosstalk with synovial fibroblasts

M.VranjkovicO.GanzmanG

The richest dietary sources include: Heart (chicken, beef, lamb): 650-950 mg/100g Dark meat poultry: 170-330 mg/100g Seafood (especially shellfish): 240-820 mg/100g Organ meats (liver, kidney): 120-240 mg/100g Meat muscle tissue: 30-160 mg/100g Eggs: 15-20 mg/100g Notably absent from: All plant proteins (legumes, grains, vegetables) White fish (minimal amounts) Dairy products (minimal amounts) The bioavailability of taurine varies based on preparation method: Raw meat retains the highest levels Boiling can reduce content by 25-50% Commercial processing may further reduce levels Mechanisms of Action Cardiovascular Pathways Myocardial Calcium Regulation: Modulates calcium-dependent processes in cardiac muscle Maintains calcium homeostasis in cardiomyocytes Supports excitation-contraction coupling Protects against calcium overload during stress Stabilises ryanodine receptors and calcium channels Osmoregulatory Functions: Acts as an organic osmolyte in cardiac tissue Helps maintain appropriate cell volume Protects against osmotic stress Supports cellular hydration during increased demands Influences electrolyte balance in cardiac tissue Antioxidant Protection: Scavenges hypochlorous acid and other oxidants in cardiac cells Prevents oxidative damage to mitochondrial membranes Protects cellular proteins from carbonylation Maintains thiol status in cardiomyocytes Supports overall redox balance in cardiovascular tissue Neurological Functions Neurotransmitter Modulation: Acts as an inhibitory neuromodulator Activates glycine and GABA receptors Regulates glutamate activity Stabilises neuronal membranes Supports healthy neurotransmitter balance Neuroendocrine Regulation: Influences hormone release from the hypothalamus Supports pineal gland function Modulates cortisol responses Helps regulate circadian rhythm mechanisms Impacts stress response pathways Developmental Support: Essential for proper retinal development Supports neuronal migration during growth Maintains cell integrity during neural development Protects developing neurons from excitotoxicity Facilitates appropriate maturation of neural circuits Antioxidant Systems Direct Antioxidant Actions: Neutralises hypochlorous acid (HOCl) Scavenges hydroxyl radicals Reduces formation of advanced glycation end products Protects against carbonyl stress Maintains membrane integrity during oxidative challenge Cellular Defence Enhancement: Preserves cellular glutathione levels Supports mitochondrial function under stress Stabilises cellular membranes against peroxidation Reduces inflammatory oxidative damage Supports tissue recovery after oxidative injury Metabolic Protection: Prevents oxidative damage to metabolic enzymes Supports mitochondrial electron transport chain Protects against exercise-induced oxidative stress Maintains metabolic efficiency during increased demands Reduces lipid peroxidation in metabolically active tissues Digestive Role Bile Acid Conjugation: Essential component for bile acid formation Conjugates with cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid Enhances fat digestion and absorption Supports fat-soluble vitamin uptake Facilitates micelle formation in the small intestine Intestinal Integrity Support: Helps maintain intestinal epithelial barrier Supports tight junction formation Protects against mucosal damage Reduces intestinal permeability Supports recovery from intestinal inflammation Microbiome Interaction: Modulates intestinal bacterial populations Supports balanced microbiome development Influences bile acid metabolism by gut bacteria Reduces potential for bacterial translocation Supports microbial diversity through bile acid pathways Health Benefits and Applications Cardiac Health Support Dilated Cardiomyopathy Prevention: Critical for preventing taurine-deficient DCM Supports myocardial contractility Maintains cardiac cell energy metabolism Protects against mitochondrial dysfunction Essential for normal cardiac electrical conduction Cardiovascular Function Enhancement: Supports normal blood pressure regulation Helps maintain healthy vascular tone Provides antioxidant protection to vascular tissues Supports endothelial function May help regulate cholesterol metabolism Athletic Heart Support: Protects cardiac tissue during strenuous exercise Supports increased metabolic demands of athletic dogs Helps maintain electrolyte balance during exertion Protects against exercise-induced oxidative stress Supports cardiac energy metabolism during performance Taurine supports heart and eye health and is particularly worth ensuring in plant-based diets

Biol Psychiatry 75 : 970981 This paper reported that repeated social defeat induced macrophage recruitment into the brain corresponded with development and persistence of anxiety-like behavior