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However, long-term dietary intervention showed that the production for TMAO in chronic choline-treated group is 2.8 and 1.6 times than that in L-carnitine and betaine groups, respectively (Yu et al., 2020)

Which vitamins are important for male fertility

Intestinal microbes metabolize L-carnitine into trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), which is linked to higher heart disease risk

Fumarate, or fumaric acid, is a naturally occurring organic acid that serves as a direct intermediate in the Krebs cycle (also known as the Citric Acid Cycle or TCA cycle)

however, whether SCFAs can directly affect the expression of TLR4 and Myd88 remains unclear