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Excessive acetyl-CoA production in the process of -oxidation inhibits the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, leading to mitochondria stress in hepatocytes [9, 10]

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Studies have discovered that increased SCFAs induce the upregulation of cytochrome p-450 enzyme cholesterol 7-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) (70) and 27-hydroxylase (CYP27A1) (71) in the liver

J Endocrinol Invest 44(2):233244

For example, berberine specifically, downregulates hepatic FMO3 via FXR/SHP signaling and inhibits microbial CutC activity, thereby reducing both microbial TMA generation and hepatic oxidation to TMAO [47, 55, 56], while specific probiotic strainssuch as Bifidobacterium and other butyrate producerscan displace TMA-generating taxa [43]