glutathione disulfide antioxidant The effect of is briefly outlined in Figure One of my favs, the
Description
Dexpanthenol attenuates inflammatory damage and apoptosis in kidney and liver tissues of septic mice
Scale bar: 15 m

Oxidative stress damages mitochondrial membrane and impairs MCU function, leading to Ca 2+ overload (Zhang et al., 2024)

The whitening process starts inside the skin (dermal layer) going outside (epidermal layer), thats the reason why it takes time to be able to see initial change in your skin tone
[PubMed] [Google Scholar] Stambolija V., Stambolija T