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Glutathione exists in two primary forms: the reduced form (GSH), characterized by a free sulfhydryl group (-SH) on its cysteine residue, and the oxidized form, glutathione disulfide (GSSG), which is formed when two GSH molecules are linked via a disulfide bond between their cysteine residues during redox reactions

This observation aligns with experimental studies demonstrating that PBM primarily affects mitochondrial and antioxidant pathways rather than immune cell recruitment or activation 36

A randomized, placebo-controlled study in 52 subjects (mean age, 30 years) with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis found an increase in total antioxidant capacity in blood with lipoic acid supplementation (1,200 mg/day for 12 weeks) yet not in the activity of specific antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) (97)

Nelson KM, Dahlin JL, Bisson J, Graham J, Pauli GF, Walters MA: Curcumin May (Not) Defy Science

Melatonin shows potential as a neuroprotective agent that can promote recovery following PNI